Zed Books Warlord Democrats in Africa: Ex-Military Leaders and Electoral Politics (Africa Now)

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved. Warlord democrats in AfricaEx-military leaders and electoral politicsBy Anders ThemnérZed Books LtdCopyright © 2017 Zed BooksAll rights reserved.ISBN: 978-1-78360-249-0ContentsAcknowledgements, Introduction: Warlord democrats: wartime investments, democratic returns? ANDERS THEMNÉR, 1 Pompier-pyromanocracy: Mbusa Nyamwisi and the DR Congo's inflammable post-settlement political order JUDITH VERWEIJEN, 2 Apotheosis of a warlord: Paul Kagame LARS WALDORF, 3 Discourses of peace and fear: the electoral navigations of Sekou Conneh and Prince Johnson in post-war Liberia CARRIE MANNING AND ANDERS THEMNÉR, 4 Afonso Dhlakama and RENAMO's return to armed conflict since 2013: the politics of reintegration in Mozambique ALEX VINES, 5 From warlord to drug lord: the life of João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira HENRIK VIGH, 6 Shape-shifters in the struggle for survival: post-war politics in Sierra Leone MIMMI SÖDERBERG KOVACS AND IBRAHIM BANGURA, 7 Riek Machar: warlord-doctor in South Sudan JOHAN BROSCHÉ AND KRISTINE HÖGLUND, Conclusion: Ambiguous peacelords: the diminishing returns of post-war democracy ANDERS THEMNÉR, About the contributors, Index, CHAPTER 1Pompierpyromanocracy: Mbusa Nyamwisi and the DR Congo's inflammable post-settlement political orderJudith VerweijenIntroductionIn April 2003, the belligerents of the Second Congo War (1998–2003) adopted a peace accord, signed in December 2002, that was bombastically dubbed the "Global and All-Inclusive Agreement". This inaugurated a transitional period that would last up to the organization of general elections in 2006. The accord paved the way for a double political and military power-sharing deal, implying that the breed of violent actors that had gained dominance during the war were officially entitled to a part of the "national cake". Positions in the politico-administrative apparatus were divided among the signatories of the peace deal, including the political representatives of former insurgent outfits, which were transformed into political parties. This form of power-sharing was mirrored in the military domain. New national armed forces were cobbled together from troops and officers of most of the ex-belligerent factions, leading to the creation of mixed units placed under an integrated command chain.The political order that developed out of this power-sharing exercise is characterized by intense and sometimes violent power competition, in particular in the eastern part of the country, where violence at various levels of intensity is ongoing. In the immediate post-settlement period, politico-military entrepreneurs struggled to maintain and extend the political, economic and military spheres of influence they had carved out during the wars, both within and outside the state apparatus. At the same time, the various competing factions tried to take advantage of the new political constellation by repositioning themselves in the national and sometimes also regional political and military arenas. A common method of such repositioning was participation in electoral politics, notably the 2006 and 2011 presidential and parliamentary elections. However, the electoral and wider political inclusion of former warlords is generally believed to have contributed to the ongoing violence in the east, in part by creating incentives among those with poor electoral prospects and results to take up arms. Furthermore, by reinforcing ethnic outbidding, it is said to have provided an impetus to armed mobilization along ethnic lines (Stearns et al. 2013).Without contradicting these observations, this chapter intends to refine the analysis of how the electoral and wider political inclusion of ex-belligerents has contributed to the militarization of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (henceforth the Congo). By exploring the post-settlement trajectory of one particular politico-military entrepreneur, Antipas Mbusa Nyamwisi, it shows how even poli